Low lutein intake in American and European diets

According to data collected by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the average daily intake of lutein by Americans is currently about 1.7 mg/day 1. The most recent data available indicates that intake in Europe is approximately 2.2 mg/day 2. These values are far below the level of 6 mg to 14 mg/day that has been associated with more than a 50 percent reduction in risk for AMD and 20 percent for cataracts. 3,4,5 This is also less than half the amount of lutein that would be consumed when following the USDA Food Guide Pyramid (FGP) of at least three to five servings of vegetables each day

1. National Institute of Medicine (2001). "Dietary reference intake for vitamin A, vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc: Prepublication copy." Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

2. O'Neill, M.E., Y. Carrollm, et al. (2001). "A European carotenoid database to assess carotenoid intakes and its use in a five-country comparative study." Br J Nutr 85(4): 499-507.

3. Seddon, J.M., U.A. Ajani, et al. (1994). "Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E,and advanced age-related macular degeneration. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Jama 272(18): 1413-20.

4. Brown, L., E.B. Rimm, et al. (1999). "A prospective study of carotenoid intake and risk of cataract extraction in U.S. men." Am J Clin Nutr 70(4): 517-24.

5. Chasan-Taber, L., W.C. Willett, et al. (1999). "A prospective study of carotenoid and vitamin A intakes and risk of cataract extraction in U.S. women." Am J Clin Nutr 70(4): 509-16.

Lutein absorption and distribution in humans

1. Falsini B, Piccardi M, Iarossi G, Fadda A, Merendino E, and Valentini P. Influence of short-term antioxidant supplementation on macular function in agerelated maculopathy. A pilot study including electrophysiologic assessment. Ophthalmology 110: 51-60., 2003.

2. Johnson EJ. The role of carotenoids in human health. Nutr Clin Care 5: 56-65.,2002.

3. Krinsky, NI, Landrum, JT, and Bone RA. Biologic Mechanisms of the Protective Role of Lutein and Zeaxanthin in the Eye. Annu Rev Nutr, 2003.

4. Yeum KJ and Russell RM. Carotenoid bioavailability and bioconversion. Annu Rev Nutr 22: 483-504, 2002.

5. Furr HC and Clark RM. Intestinal absorption and tissue distribution of carotenoids. Nutr Biochem 8: 364-377., 1997.

6. van Vliet T. Absorption of beta-carotene and other carotenoids in humans and animal models. Eur J Clin Nutr 50 Suppl 3: p. S32-7., 1996.

7. van het Hof KH, Brouwer IA, West CE, Haddeman E, Steegers-Theunissen RP, van Dusseldorp M, Weststrate JA, Eskes TK, and Hautvast JG. Bioavailability of lutein from vegetables is 5 times higher than that of beta-carotene. Am J Clin Nutr 70: 261-268., 1999.

8. van het Hof KH, Tijburg LB, Pietrzik K, and Weststrate JA. Influence of feeding different vegetables on plasma levels of carotenoids, folate and vitamin C. Effect of disruption of the vegetable matrix. Br J Nutr 82: 203-212., 1999.

9. van den Berg H. Carotenoid interactions. Nutr Rev 57: 1-10., 1999.

10. Kostic D, White WS, and Olson JA. Intestinal absorption, serum clearance, and interactions between lutein and beta-carotene when administered to human adults in separate or combined oral doses. Am J Clin Nutr 62: 604-610., 1995.

11. Tyssandier V, Cardinault N, Caris-Veyrat C, Amiot MJ, Grolier P, Bouteloup C, Azais-Braesco V, and Borel P. Vegetable-borne lutein, lycopene, and beta-carotene compete for incorporation into chylomicrons, with no adverse effect on the medium- term (3-wk) plasma status of carotenoids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 75: 526-534., 2002.

12. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2002.

13. Russell RM. Factors in Aging that Effect the Bioavailability of Nutrients. J Nutr 131: 1359S-1361S., 2001.

14. Parker RS. Bioavailability of carotenoids in human subjects. Proc Nutr Soc, 1999. 58(1): p. 155-62.

15. Granado F, Olmedilla B, and Blanco I. Serum depletion and bioavailability of lutein in type I diabetic patients. Eur J Nutr 41: 47-53., 2002.

Lung function and antioxidants

1. Schunemann, H.J., J. Dorn, et al. (2000). "Pulmonary function is a long-term predictor of mortality in the general population: 29-year follow-up of the Buffalo Health Study." Chest 118: 656-64.

2. Schunemann, H.J., J.L. Freudenheim, et al. (2001). "Epidemiologic evidence linking antioxidant vitamins to pulmonary function and airway obstruction.“ Epidemiol. Rev. 23: 248-67.

3. Schunemann HJ, McCann S, et al. (2002). “Lung Function in Relation to Intake of Carotenoids and Other Antioxidant Vitamins in a Population-based Study” Am. J.Epidem. 155(5): 463-471.